Immunology Notes

Learn immunology with easy-to-understand notes on immune cells, antibodies, antigen response, hypersensitivity, and vaccines. Ideal for students and exam prep.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test (AST) Principle, Methods, Procedure, and Interpretation

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test (AST): Principle, Methods, Procedure, and Interpretation

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Introduction Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) is a fundamental laboratory procedure in clinical microbiology used to determine how effectively antimicrobial agents, such as antibiotics, inhibit or kill bacteria. The main objective of AST is to evaluate whether a microorganism is susceptible, intermediate, or resistant to various antimicrobial drugs. With the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), AST […]

How Microbiology Helps in Vaccine Development

How Microbiology Helps in Vaccine Development: A Comprehensive Guide

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Introduction In this article, we will explore the 25 keyways how microbiology helps in vaccine development, from identifying pathogens to creating advanced genetic vaccines, supported by surveillance and biosafety systems. Vaccines are one of the greatest achievements in modern medicine, responsible for saving millions of lives every year. Behind every successful vaccine lies years of

Immune System Cells

Immune System Cells: The Body’s Cellular Defenders

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Introduction The human immune system is a complex network of specialized cells, tissues, and organs designed to protect the body against infections, cancer, and foreign invaders. At the heart of this system are the immune cells—each with a unique function in detecting, responding to, and remembering pathogens. These vital defenders originate from a common source:

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