Introduction The human immune system is a complex network of specialized cells, tissues, and organs designed to protect the body against infections, cancer, and foreign invaders. At the heart of this system are the immune cells—each with a unique function in detecting, responding to, and remembering pathogens. These vital defenders originate from a common source: […]
Introduction to Biochar Biochar: Thermally treated biomass that consists primarily of carbon. Biochar, commonly known as black carbon, is produced from organic materials high in carbon (C) and is frequently discovered in soils in extremely stable solid forms, such as deposits. Bio-chars can last for thousands of years in the soil at various depths. Charcoal,
Introduction to RNA Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a fundamental biomolecule present in most living organisms and many viruses. It consists of a ribose sugar, phosphate backbone, and nitrogenous bases — adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U) (in place of thymine in DNA). The majority of RNA is single-stranded, however there are particular
Introduction to Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when microorganisms—such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites—evolve to survive exposure to drugs that once killed or inhibited them. It poses a major threat to global health, food security, and development. According to WHO, by 2050, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually if not controlled.
Introduction to Microscopy Microscopy is the scientific discipline of using microscopes to observe samples and items that are too small to be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). Microscopy plays a crucial role in various scientific disciplines, allowing researchers to observe and analyze microscopic
Introduction Microbiology is the scientific study of microorganisms—tiny, often microscopic organisms also known as microbes. These include a diverse group of life forms such as bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Microbiology plays a crucial role in understanding the structure, classification, function, and behavior of these organisms, as well as how they can be
Introduction to Spirulina Spirulina, a filamentous blue-green microalga belonging to the cyanobacteria group, is one of the oldest life forms on Earth. Known for its high nutritional value and broad health benefits, Spirulina has been consumed for centuries as a natural food source. Among edible cyanobacteria like Nostoc and Aphanizomenon, Spirulina (Spirulina maxima and Spirulina
